Capitella capitata

Researched By	Lizzie Tyler	Data Supplied By	University of Sheffield
Refereed by	This information is not refereed.
Taxonomy
Scientific name	Capitella capitata	Common name	Gallery worm
MCS Code	P907	Recent Synonyms	None
Phylum	Annelida	Subphylum
Superclass		Class	Polychaeta
Subclass		Order	Capitellida
Suborder		Family	Capitellidae
Genus	Capitella	Species	capitata
Subspecies
Additional Information	Capitella capitata represents a complex (Grassle & Grassle, 1976) of over ten sibling species (Gamenick & Giere, 1997). While the species of this complex show only slight differences in adult morphology, they differ clearly in ontogenetic, ecological and genetic features (Gamenick & Giere, 1997) and have distinct reproductive modes (Grassle & Grassle, 1976).
Taxonomy References	Hayward & Ryland, 1995b, Hayward et al., 1996, Howson & Picton, 1997, Gamenick & Giere, 1997, Grassle & Grassle, 1976
General Biology
Growth form	Cylindrical, Vermiform segmented	Feeding method	Surface deposit feeder, Sub-surface deposit feeder
Mobility/Movement	Burrower	Environmental position	Infaunal
Typical food types	Micro-organisms, phytoplankton and detritus	Habit	Burrow dwelling
Bioturbator	Not researched	Flexibility	High (>45 degrees)
Fragility	Fragile	Size	Small-medium(3-10cm)
Height	Not relevant	Growth Rate	30 mm / year
Adult dispersal potential	100-1000m	Dependency	Independent
Sociability	Solitary
Toxic/Poisonous?	No
Additional Information	Abundance In non-polluted areas, densities can exceed 250,000 ind/m² (Barnes, 1994). In polluted sites in Barcelona, densities of 440 000 ind/m² (Mendez et al., 1997) and 750 000 ind/m² (Sarda et al. ,1995) have been recorded. Tsutsumi (1990) recorded a maximum density of 200 000 ind/m² in sediment enriched with the green alga Ulva pertusa. Mendez et al. (1997) suggested that Capitella capitata is able to produce many individuals when organic supply is high enough to feed all the population. Petraitis (1991) studied sex ratios in Capitella capitata (species type 1) and found that, although large populations contain males, females and occasionally hermaphrodites, at low density or in groups with a females-biased sex ratio males develop into hermaphrodites. Petraitis (1991) also noted that most homogametic juveniles become females if reared alone, but males if reared with other conspecifics. Growth Warren (1976) estimated growth rate to be 30mm/year. Feeding Capitella capitata is a non-selective subsurface deposit feeder (Fauchald & Jumars, 1979), feeding on micro-organisms, phytoplankton and detritus. Lopes et al. (2000) found that an increase in abundance of macroalgae resulted in a substantial increase in the abundance of Capitella capitata. Furthermore, Qian & Chia (1991) found that, in Canada, individuals fed on the bull kelp Nereocystis luetkeana or the green alga Ulva lactuca grew much faster and attained a larger body size than those fed on the kelp Macrocystis integrifolia or seagrass Zostera marina. Qian & Chia (1991b) found that larvae grew faster and had shorter pelagic periods when fed with phytoplankton at concentrations of 10x and 25x ambient concentrations. Fauchald & Jumars (1979) reviewed feeding of Capitellids. Feeding takes place by everting a papillose, sac-like pharynx. The pharyngeal epithelium secretes a mucro-polysaccharide (Michel, 1967) apparently used to agglutinate sand grains, and possibly to select organic particles of low specific gravity. All capitellids are considered non-selective (Fauchald & Jumars, 1979). Capitella capitata can take up dissolved primary amines from the surrounding medium (Stephens, 1975).
Biology References	Fauchald & Jumars, 1979, Barnes, 1994, Mendez et al., 1997, Sarda et al., 1995, Tsutsumi, 1990, Petraitis, 1991, Warren, 1976, Qian & Chia, 1991, Qian & Chia, 1991b, Michel, 1967, Stephens, 1975, Lopes et al., 2000, Hayward & Ryland, 1990
Distribution and Habitat
Distribution in Britain & Ireland	Reported from all coasts of Britain and Ireland.
Global distribution	Located on European coasts from the Arctic to the Mediterranean and widespread around Atlantic and Pacific coasts.
Biogeographic range	Not researched	Depth range
Migratory	Non-migratory / Resident
Distribution Additional Information	Bolam & Fernandes (2002) and Shull (1997) noted that Capitella capitata can colonize azoic sediments rapidly in relatively high numbers. Shull (1997) also demonstrated that this occurs by larval settlement, bedload transport and by burrowing. Capitella capitata has been recorded in high numbers in areas of organic enrichment; where sewage inputs (Bridges, 1996; Holte & Oug, 1996; Cardell et al., 1998, Thom & Chew, 1979) and fish farms (Karakassis et al., 2000) were present. They have also been recorded in areas where sediments contain high concentrations of metals and hydrocarbons (Ward & Young, 1982; Olsgard, 1999; Petrich & Reish, 1979). The species occurs in the seaward portions of estuaries (salinities >18 ppt) and under corresponding conditions in non-tidal brackish waters (Barnes, 1994). Lugworms have been found to have a strongly negative effect on the juvenile densities of Capitella capitata (Flach, 1991).
Substratum preferences	Fine clean sand, Muddy sand, Mud, Sandy mud	Physiographic preferences	Open coast, Strait / sound, Enclosed coast / Embayment, Estuary
Biological zone	Upper Eulittoral, Mid Eulittoral, Lower Eulittoral, Sublittoral Fringe	Wave exposure	Insufficient information
Tidal stream strength/Water flow	Insufficient information	Salinity	Full (30-40 psu), Variable (18-40 psu)
Habitat Additional Information
AMBI Group (Borja et al., 2000)	V
Distribution References	Petrich & Reish, 1979, Ward & Young, 1982, Bridges, 1996, Olsgard, 1999, Bolam & Fernandes, 2002, Barnes, 1994, Holte & Oug, 1996, Thom & Chew, 1979, Karakassis et al., 2000, Flach, 1991, Shull, 1997, Cardell et al., 1998
Reproduction/Life History
Reproductive type	Insufficient information	Developmental mechanism	Lecithotrophic
Reproductive Season	All year	Reproductive Location	As adult
Reproductive frequency	Annual protracted	Regeneration potential	No
Life span	1-2 years	Age at reproductive maturity	<1 year
Generation time	<1 year	Fecundity	600
Egg/propagule size	175 µm diameter	Fertilization type	Insufficient information
Larvae/Juveniles Larval/Juvenile dispersal potential See additional information Larval settlement period See additional information Duration of larval stage
Additional Information	Age at maturity Studies on natural populations in England show that sexual maturity is reached at about 4 months (Warren, 1976). However, in other geographical locations, sexual maturity may be reached at 3.5 months (Qian & Chia, 1994). In the laboratory, sexual maturity may be reached between 31 and 48 days after recruitment, depending on temperature (12.6-22 °C) (Tsutsumi & Kikuchi, 1984). Reproduction Warren (1976) noted that spawning occurred throughout the year in Plymouth, with all oocytes being released at a single spawning. Warren (1976) also noted that oocytes are not released into the coelomic fluid until almost fully developed and that larval development may have been completely benthonic. However, in the USA another variant of Capitella capitata, Capitella species 1, has been shown to have planktonic larval development for a short time (hours to days) before settlement (Grassle & Grassle, 1974). This species is considered to be iteroparous, and the lecithotrophic larvae are brooded during part of their development within the adult tube. Holte & Oug (1996) noted that in northern Norway, Capitella capitata occurred in two variants; one small form with large eggs (250 µm) and one large form with small eggs (100-125 µm). Similar variants have been found in British waters (Pearson & Pearson, 1991). Larval development Planas & Mora (1989) calculated that individuals from the north west of Spain take 2-4 weeks to change from eggs to the juvenile stage and about 3 months from juveniles to adults. Cultures of sibling species have indicated a generation time of 30-40 days (Grassle & Grassle, 1976; Grassle, 1984; Whitlatch & Zajac, 1985). Capitella species 1 larvae were attracted by a sulphide concentration of 0.1mm to 1.0mm, yielding higher settlement, subsequent metamorphosis and survival of settled polychaetes compared with non-sulphidic controls (Cuomo, 1985). Fecundity Fecundity has been recorded as 460 eggs per female in Barcelona (Mendez, 1995) to 6-600 eggs per female in USA (Grassle & Grassle, 1974). Longevity Potential longevity ranged from 45 days in Barcelona (Mendez et al., 1997) to 2 years in a population in England (Warren, 1976). Other information Lopes et al. (2000) found that animals fed on the sea grass Zostera marina had the smallest body size, became sexually mature in the shortest period and had the highest average fecundity. Number of eggs produced from the first spawn was the highest for the individuals fed on the bull kelp Nereocystis luetkeana and the lowest for individuals fed on Zostera marina. Animals fed the green alga Ulva lactuca and the sea grass Zostera marina produced much larger eggs.
Reproduction References	Grassle & Grassle, 1974, Pearson & Pearson, 1991, Mendez et al., 1997, Warren, 1976, Holte & Oug, 1996, Qian & Chia, 1994, Tsutsumi & Kichuki, 1984, Planas & Mora, 1989, Grassle & Grassle, 1976, Grassle, 1984, Whitlatch & Zajac, 1985, Cuomo, 1985, Mendez, 1995, Lopes et al., 2000, Eckert, 2003